From: Is water-based exercise training sufficient to improve physical fitness in the elderly?
Author | Group | Aerobic or endurance capacity | Strength and muscular endurance | Flexibility | Body composition |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Katsura et al. (2009) | Resistance group (N = 12) |  | Leg extension force (N m): 339.0 ± 61.1 to 340.5 ± 53.0 | Sit and reach test (cm): 27.9 ± 8.3 to 31.3 ± 6.7* |  |
Muscle strength of planter flexion (kg)*: 32.3 ± 6.8 to 43.8 ± 6.5 | |||||
Muscle strength of dorsi flexion (kg): 22.7 ± 3.3 to 23.1 ± 5.4 | |||||
Nonresistance group (N = 8) |  | Leg extension force (N m): 382.8 ± 95.2 to 391.1 ± 78.3 | Sit and reach test (cm): 23.6 ± 5.0 to 28.0 ± 4.8* |  | |
Muscle strength of planter flexion (kg)*: 40.4 ± 6.7 to 48.1 ± 9.6* | |||||
Muscle strength of dorsi flexion (kg): 24.5 ± 5.0 to 27.5 ± 3.8 | |||||
Vale et al. (2009) | SG—strength training group (N = 12) |  | Bench press (kg): 16.50 ± 4.27 to not reported (+42.4%)* |  |  |
Leg press 45° (kg): 51.67 ± 1.02 to not reported (+71.0%)* | |||||
AG—aerobic training group (N = 13) | Bench press (kg): 24.46 ± 3.84 to not reported (1.02%) | ||||
Leg press 45° (kg): 77.81 ± 3.06 to not reported (26.17%)* | |||||
CG—control group (10) | Bench press (kg): 21.08 ± 1.03 (4.40%) | ||||
Leg press 45° (kg): 67.30 ± 2.45 (3.26%) | |||||
Bocalini et al. (2008) | WE—water based exercise (N = 27) | VO2 max (ml kg−1 kg−1): 20 ± 3 to 35 ± 3 (42%)*,**,*** | Arm curl test (number to exhaustion): 17 ± 3 to 25 ± 1*,**,*** | Back scratch test (cm): −10 ± 2 to −6 ± 2*,**,*** |  |
Sit and reach test (cm): 24 ± 3 to 36 ± 2*,**,*** | |||||
WL—walking on land (N = 25) | VO2 max (ml kg−1 kg−1): 19 ± 4 to 28 ± 2 (32%)*,** | Arm curl test (number to exhaustion): 20 ± 2 to 22 ± 3 | Back scratch test (cm): −11 ± 1 to −10 ± 1 | ||
Sit and reach test (cm): 21 ± 2 to 28 ± 2*,** | |||||
S—sedentary group (N = 20) | Not reported | Arm curl test (number to exhaustion): 19 ± 1 to 21 ± 2 | Back scratch test (cm): −11 ± 2 to −10 ± 1 | ||
Sit and reach test (cm): 22 ± 2 to 23 ± 2 | |||||
Cancela Carral et al. (2007) | G1—group 1 (N = 31) | VO2 max (ml kg−1 kg−1): 19.39 ± 5.85 to 18.80 ± 6.00 | Right hand grip (kg): 19.58 ± 5.74 to 22.14 ± 6.26* | Sit and reach test (cm): 23.21 ± 7.43 to 24.82 ± 7.24* |  |
Time 2,000 m (min): 22.12 ± 1.95 to 21.48 ± 1.41 | Left grip (kg): 18.78 ± 5.76 to 20.76 ± 5.62* | ||||
Leg strength (kg): 51.08 ± 27.55 to 61.10 ± 22.84* | |||||
Abdominal resistance strength (number to exhaustion): 55.03 ± 26.24 to 61.71 ± 14.00* | |||||
G2—group 2 (N = 31) | VO2 max (ml kg−1 kg−1): 17.50 ± 9.87 to 17.58 ± 9.81 | Right hand grip (kg): 18.21 ± 5.08 to 18.32 ± 5.01 | Sit and reach test (cm): 23.18 ± 5.44 to 26.47 ± 7.59* | ||
Time 2,000 m (min): 22.02 ± 3.01 to 22.39 ± 3.02 | Left hand grip (kg): 17.76 ± 5.33 to 17.48 ± 5.36 | ||||
Leg strength (kg): 43.83 ± 18.04 to 45.72 ± 17.30 | |||||
Abdominal resistance strength (number to exhaustion): 50.92 ± 25.08 to 50.89 ± 23.85 | |||||
Broman et al. (2006) | Training group (N = 18) | Work rate (W): 120 ± 20 to 132 ± 20* |  |  |  |
VO2 (l min−1): 1.74 ± 0.25 to 1.92 ± 0.28* | |||||
VO2 (ml kg−1 kg−1) 25.5 ± 2.3 to 27.2 ± 2.1* | |||||
Control group (N = 11) | Work rate (W): 111 ± 27 to 116 ± 22 | ||||
VO2 (l min−1) 1.65 ± 0.29 to 1.72 ± 0.27 | |||||
VO2 (ml kg−1 kg−1) 22.5 ± 4.3 to 23.3 ± 4.0 | |||||
Tsourlou et al. (2006) | AT—aquatic training (N = 12) |  | Knee extension (N m): 80.8 ± 8 to 89.3 ± 7.9*,** | Sit and reach test (cm): 21.15 ± 1.9 to 23.60 ± 1.8* | FFM (kg): 38.0 ± 1.1 to 39.3 ± 1.2* |
Knee flexion (N m): 54.3 ± 5.5 to 61.6 ± 5.4*,** | |||||
1-RM knee extension (kg): 41.70 ± 2.5 to 53.97 ± 2.7*,** | |||||
1-RM leg press (kg): 62.05 ± 3.6 to 80.35 ± 3.7*,** | |||||
1-RM chest press (kg): 25.45 ± 1.7 to 32.00 ± 1.70*,** | |||||
1-RM lat pull down (kg): 28.77 ± 1.4 to 28.28 ± 1.0 | |||||
Hand grip (kg): 24.05 ± 1.2 to 27.14 ± 1.3*,** | |||||
C—control group (N = 10) |  | Knee extension (N m) 82.5 ± 9.2 to 83.6 ± 12.2 | Sit and reach test (cm): 22.56 ± 2.4 to 22.87 ± 2.4 | FFM (kg): 41.0 ± 0.8 to 40.7 ± 0.7 | |
Knee flexion (N m) 55.1 ± 9.2 to 57.8 ± 11.3 | |||||
1-RM knee extension (kg): 40.50 ± 2.6 to 41.37 ± 2.7 | |||||
1-RM leg press (kg): 57.18 ± 4.0 to 58.44 ± 4.6 | |||||
1-RM chest press (kg): 24.81 ± 1.8 to 25.56 ± 1.80 | |||||
1-RM lat pull down (kg): 25.94 ± 0.8 to 24.19 ± 1.4 | |||||
Hand grip (kg): 23.4 ± 2.7 to 23.6 ± 2.3 | |||||
Takeshima et al. (2002) | TR—training group (N = 15) | VO2 at lactate threshold (l min−1): 0.777 ± 0.214 to 0.934 ± 0.224 (20%)* | Knee extension (N m) 34.4 ± 8.0 to 37.3 ± 7.4*,** | Trunk extension (cm): 32.6 ± 11.1 to 36.1 ± 8.0 | Sum of skinfold (mm): 40.5 ± 11.1 to 37.3 ± 10.3* |
Peak VO2 (l min−1): 1.178 ± 0.39 to 1.314 ± 0.341 (12%)* | Knee flexion (N m): 26.0 ± 7.8 to 29.3 ± 8.1*,** | Trunk flexion (cm): 15.4 ± 5.9 to 16.6 ± 4.7 | Arm girth (cm): 27.7 ± 2.8 to 28.0 ± 2.9 | ||
Chest press (N m): 216.4 ± 46.1 to 231.9 ± 49.1*,** | Thigh girth (cm): 45.0 ± 3.7 to 45.5 ± 4.6 | ||||
Chest pull (N m): 224.1 ± 45.2 to 248.2 ± 53.2*,** | |||||
Low back extension (N m): 216.4 ± 78.1 to 230.0 ± 51.8*,** | |||||
Low back flexion (N m): 132.8 ± 30.9 to 127.9 ± 39.4 | |||||
Shoulder press (N m): 88.2 ± 28.1 to 92.0 ± 25.4*,** | |||||
Shoulder pull (N m): 193.8 ± 43.3 to 205.5 ± 47.4*,** | |||||
Vertical jump (cm): 23.1 ± 4.6 to 25.2 ± 4.4*,** | |||||
Nonexercise control group (N = 15) | VO2 at lactate threshold (l min−1): not reported | Knee extension (N m): 34.4 ± 5.3 to 33.7 ± 5.3 | Trunk extension (cm): 29.7 ± 9.6 to 29.2 ± 9.9 | Sum of skinfold (mm): 47.5 ± 12.5 to 49.4 ± 12.7 | |
Peak VO2 (l min−1): not reported | Knee flexion (N m): 34.4 ± 5.3 to 33.7 ± 5.3 | Trunk flexion (cm): 8.3 ± 8.0 to 8.5 ± 8.3 | Arm girth (cm): 28.4 ± 1.8 to 28.3 ± 2.0 | ||
Chest press (N m): 216.6 ± 41.4 to 213.1 ± 40.7 | Thigh girth (cm): 46.8 ± 2.8 to 47.0 ± 2.8 | ||||
Chest pull (N m): 234.2 ± 45.1 to 229.3 ± 46.1 | |||||
Low back extension (N m): 231.1 ± 57.4 to 197.9 ± 74.6 | |||||
Low back flexion (N m): 142.6 ± 41.7 to 117.5 ± 49.9 | |||||
Shoulder press (N m): 106.6 ± 22.8 to 96.7 ± 22.9 | |||||
Shoulder pull (N m): 223.8 ± 36.2 to 208.0 ± 42.9 | |||||
Vertical jump (cm): 23.0 ± 4.8 to 22.3 ± 4.5 | |||||
Taunton et al. (1996) | Water-based exercise program (N = 23) | VO2 max (ml kg−1 kg−1): 18.8 ± 3.5 to 21.1 ± 3.3 (11.7%)* | Grip strength (kg): 52.2 ± 10.7 to 52.5 ± 9.3 | Sit and reach test (cm): 29.3 ± 9.2 to 31.9 ± 9.1 | Sum of skinfold (mm): 80.8 ± 30.4 to 82.3 ± 33.3 |
Curl-up (number min−1): 34 ± 20 to 45 ± 33 | Waist to hip ratio (cm): 0.85 ± 0.07 to 0.85 ± 0.06 | ||||
Push-up (number to exhaustion): 19 ± 19 to 22 ± 12 | |||||
Land-based exercise program (N = 18) | VO2 max (ml kg−1 kg−1): 18.4 ± 3.2 to 20.9 ± 3.6 (10.9%)* | Grip strength (kg): 49.5 ± 10.7 to 48.3 ± 8.9 | Sit and reach test (cm): 28.8 ± 7.8 to 27.6 ± 10.9 | Sum of skinfold (mm): 82.6 ± 35.8 to 83.3 ± 37.1 | |
Curl-up (number min−1): 32 ± 15 to 53 ± 30* | Waist to hip ratio (cm): 0.81 ± 0.06 to 0.76 ± 0.17 | ||||
Push-up (number to exhaustion): 17 ± 13 to 21 ± 10 | |||||
Ruoti et al. (1994) | Exercise group (N = 12) | VO2 max (ml kg−1 kg−1): 23.37 ± 0.4 to 26.95 ± 0.5*,** | Work capacity—shoulder abduction–adduction (repetitions/min): 6.29 ± 0.3 to 8.48 ± 0.3*,** |  | Fat mass (%): 38.48 ± 0.5 to 36.90 ± 0.5 |
Endurance work (heart rate at the same workload): 123.94 ± 6.3 to 98.36 ± 6.2*,** | Work capacity—shoulder flexion–extension (repetitions/min): 3.08 ± 0.1 to 3.41 ± 0.1*,** | ||||
Control group (N = 8) | VO2 max (ml kg−1 kg−1): 23.17 ± 0.4 to 21.84 ± 0.6 | Work capacity—shoulder abduction–adduction (repetitions/min): 6.07 ± 0.2 to 5.82 ± 0.3 | Fat mass (%): 38.20 ± 0.6 to 38.21 ± 0.6 | ||
Endurance work (heart rate at the same workload): 120.84 ± 6.9 to 122.46 ± 7.8 | Work capacity—shoulder flexion–extension (repetitions/min): 3.13 ± 0.1 to 2.87 ± 0.1 |