Table 2 Summary of studies on Pilates method and older adults

Hall [19]

Pre-post-test

To improve balance and gait

EG1 = 9 (M/F)

EG2 = 9 (M/F)

CG = 6 (M/F)

69.5 ± 4.1

EG1 = strength and flexibility program

EG2 = Pilates method

CG = No exercise

EG1 = 10/2/60

EG2 = 10/2/60

EG1 = 20

EG2 = 20

KAT and BBS.

Significant differences were observed on static balance on the KAT (p = 0.0028) for the three groups, with EG2 improving more than EG1. All three groups also presented a significant time effect on the BBS (p = 0.009).

Mallery et al. [33]

Pre–post-test

To improve leg strength with effective procedure and safe posture

EG = 19 (5 M/14 F)

CG = 20 (11 M/9 F)

EG = 82.7 ± 8.5

CG = 81.4 ± 6.1

EG = resistance exercise program (using principles of the Pilates method)

CG = passive ROM exercises

EG = 4/3/30-40 (10 repetitions per exercise)

EG = 7.24

Primary outcome measurements: participation and adherence. Other measurements: MMSE and 1RM for single leg knee extension.

Significant improvements in participation (p < 0.005) and adherence (p < 0.05) in ROM exercise group.

Rodrigues et al. [41]

Pre–post-test

To improve strength and flexibility

EG = 27 (F)

CG = 25 (F)

EG = 66.9 ± 5;

CG = 65.2 ± 3.9

EG = Pilates method

CG = No exercise

EG = 8/2/60

EG = 16

GDLAM

Significant improvements for CG in 10-m walking (p < 0.05) and significant improvements for EG in 10-m walking (p < 0.001), get up from a sitting position (p < 0.01), get up from a lying position (p < 0.001), dress and undress a T-shirt (p < 0.01) and get up from a chair and move around at home (p < 0.01).

Rodrigues et al. [43]

Pre–post-test

To improve personal autonomy, static balance and quality of life

EG = 27 (F)

CG = 25 (F)

66.0 ± 4.0

(60–78)

EG = Pilates method

CG = No exercise

EG = 8/2/60

EG = 16

Functional autonomy: GDLAM. Static balance: Tinetti test.

Significant post-test differences for EG in balance (p < 0,001) and General Index of GDLAM (p < 0,001).

Irez et al. [23]

Pre–post-test

To improve strength, flexibility, reaction time and dynamic balance

EG = 30 (F)

CG = 30 (F)

EG = 72.8 ± 6.7

CG = 78.0 ± 5.7

EG = Pilates method

CG = No exercise

EG = 12/3/60

EG = 36

Dynamic stability measurement platform. Reaction time: with a device using light and sound stimuli. Muscle Manual Tester. Flexibility: Sit-and-reach test. Number of falls.

Significant improvement for EG in dynamic balance (p < 0.05), flexibility (sit and reach) (p < 0.05), muscle strength (p < 0.05), reaction time (p < 0.05) and number of falls (p < 0.05).

Bird et al. [6]

Pre, mind-post-test

To improve balance and leg strength

EG1 = 17 (M/F) CG1 = 15 (M/F) EG2 = 14 (M/F) CG2 = 13 (M/F)

EG1 + CG1 = 67.2 ± 6.6

EG2 + CG2 = 67.3 ± 6.5

EG = Pilates method

CG = Usual activities

EG1 = 5/3/60

EG2 = 5/3/60

EG1 = 15

EG2 = 15

ML balance sway range with AMTI force platform. FSST. TUG. A spring-based measurement system developed as part of a battery of fall risk assessment tests (strength for knee extensors and ankle dorsiflexors).

Significant improvements in static and dynamic balance for EG (p < 0.001) and in ML sway range on a foam cushion with eyes opened (p = 0.001) and eyes closed (p < 0.001), but not in lower-limb strength. No significant between-group differences (EG/CG) in any variable.

Boguszewski et al. [8]

Pre–post-test

To improve level of physical fitness and health

EG1 = 15 (F)

EG2 = 10 (F)

EG1 = 65.9 ± 7.2 EG2 = 65.9 ± 5.0

(55–76)

EG1 = Pilates method;

EG2 = Water-aqua fitness.

EG1 = 10/1/90 EG2 = 10/1/90

EG1 = 15

EG2 = 15

TUG. Test for strength and endurance of lower limbs: walking up the stairs. Test for strength of upper limbs: bending forearms. Test for suppleness of the lower body part: “reach to the toe”. STAI.

Significant improvements for aqua fitness group in strength and endurance of lower limbs (p = 0.014) and upper limbs (p = 0.038) tests. No significant progress in TUG, flexibility of lower part of body and STAI for both groups was observed.

Coriolano et al. [4]

Pre–post-test

To improve balance

EG = 19 (9 M/10 F) CG = 20 (10 M/10 F)

EG = 69.6 ± 3.1 CG = 69.7 ± 2.9

(65–74)

EG = Pilates method

CG = unspecific program Physical Education.

EG = 10/2/60

CG = 10/2/60

EG = 20

CG = 20

The balance test (“Gleichgewichtstest”—GGT).

Significant improvements in body balance for EG (p < 0.01)

Fourie et al. [13]

Pre–post-test

To improve muscular strength and muscular endurance

EG = 25 (F)

CG = 25 (F).

EG = 65.3 ± 5.0

CG = 66.1 ± 4.7

EG = Mat Pilates method

CG = No exercise

EG = 8/3/60

EG = 24

Upper body muscular strength: number of arm curls in 30″ using a 2.5-kg dumbbell. Lower-body muscular strength: number of times in 30″ could stand up from a seated position. Muscular endurance: number of squats until fatigue.

Significant improvements for experimental group in upper and lower-body muscular strength, and muscular endurance (p < 0,001) and significant improvements for control group in upper and lower body muscular strength (p < 0.05).

Plachy et al. [38]

Pre–post-test

To improve stretching, strength, flexibility and balance

EG1 = 15 (F)

EG2 = 15 (F)

CG = 12 (F)

EG1 = 66.2 ± 3.8 EG2 = 67.1 ± 5.9

CG = 68.2 ± 3.2

(60–78).

EG1 = 3 Pilates method

EG2 = 2 aqua-fitness class + 1 Pilates method class.

CG = No exercise

EG=:26/3/60

EG = 78

ROM: shoulder, hip, lumbar spine, thoracolumbar spine and trunk lateral flexion. 6-minute walk test. Sit-to-stand test for 30″.

Significant improvement for EG1 and EG2 in shoulder, hip, lumbar and thoracolumbar flexibility, lumbar lateral flexion, 6-min walk test and sit-to-stand test (p < 0.05).

Mokhtari et al. [36]

Pre–post-test

To improve balance and depression

EG = 15 (F)

CG = 15 (F)

( 62–80)

EG = Pilates method

CG = No exercise

EG = 12/3/60

EG = 36

GDS. FRT. TUG.

Significant improvements in GDS (p = 0.007), FRT (p = 0.037) and TUG (p = 0.001).

Fernández y Benítez [12]

Pre–post-test

To improve muscle mass

EG = 15

CG = 15

(22 F/8 M)

EG = 65.26 ± 6.02 CG = 65.33 ± 12.72

EG = Pilates method

CG = No exercise

EG = ?/3/60

EG = ?

Skinfolds caliperation (tricipital, mid-thigh and medial lower leg), muscle perimeters (arm relaxed, forearm maximum, mid-thigh and leg maximum) and hand strength (dynamometer).

No significant differences between groups, although the subjects of EG showed higher values of muscle mass

Fourie et al. [14]

Pre–post-test

To improve flexibility

EG = 25 (F)

CG = 25 (F)

EG = 65.32 ± 5.01

CG = 66.12 ± 4.77

EG = Pilates method

CG = No exercise

EG = 8/3/60

EG = 24

A standard wall-mounted stadiometer (stature), a calibrated digital medical Scale (bodyweight), Skinfold caliperation, Durnin-Womersley equation (body density) and equation of Siri (body fat percentage).

Significant improvements in shoulder flexion, hip flexion, and lean mass and significant decreases in percentage of body fat and fat mass for EG. Significant improvements in shoulder extension for CG.

Gildenhuys et al. [17]

Pre–post-test

To improve agility, functional mobility and VO2 max

EG = 25 (F)

CG = 25 (F)

EG = 66.12 ± 4.77 CG = 65.32 ± 5.01

EG = Mat Pilates method

CG = No exercise

EG = 8/3/60

EG = 24

A standard wall-mounted stadiometer (stature), a calibrated digital medical Scale (bodyweight), STS-1, STS-5, pick-up weight test, 8-foot Up and Go test and a 6-minute walk test.

Significant differences were observed in 8-foot Up and Go and pick-up weight test for CG (p < 0.05), and significant differences were observed in 8-foot Up and Go, pick-up-weight test, STS-1 and STS-5 for EG (p < 0.05).

Marinda et al. [35]

Pre–post-test

To improve cardiometabolic parameters

EG = 25 (F)

CG = 25 (F)

EG = 66.12 ± 4.77

CG = 65.32 ± 5.01

EG = Pilates method

CG = No exercise

EG = 8/3/60

EG = 24

Heart rate in resting (after 5 min resting by means of sphygmomanometer and stethoscope), fasting blood glucose, total cholesterol and triglycerides (Reflotron system).

Significant decrease in systolic blood pressure and a significant increase in blood glucose in EG. Any significant changes were observed in resting heart rate, resting diastolic blood pressure, blood cholesterol and blood triglycerides.

Vécseyné et al. [45]

Pre–post-test

To improve physical functioning and quality of life

EG1 = 22 (17 F/5 M)

EG2 = 17 (13 F/4 M)

CG = 15 (11 F/4 M)

EG1 = 66.6 ± 5.5

EG2 = 67.9 ± 6.9

CG = 65.6 ± 6.2

EG1 = Mat Pilates method

EG2 = aqua-fitness class

CG = No exercise

EG: 26/3/60

EG = 78

FFFT and WHOQOL-OLD questionnaire.

In the FFFT, for both EG, a significant improvement in five out of the seven variables: lower and upper body strength, lower body flexibility, physical mobility (especially dynamic balance) and aerobic endurance. Shoulder flexibility improved significantly in the Aqua fitness group. Lower body strength improved in the CG. BMI did not change significantly in any of the groups. WHOQOL showed improvement in perception and autonomy in the Pilates group and in sociability in the Aqua group.

Hyun et al. [22]

Pre–post-test

To improve balance ability

EG1 = 20 (F)

EG2 = 20 (F)

EG1 = 70.0 ± 2.2 EG2 = 69.3 ± 2.6

EG1 = Mat Pilates method

EG2 = unstable support surface exercises.

EG1 = 12/3/40

EG2 = 12/3/40

EG1 = 24

EG2 = 24

A biofeedback analysis system was used to examine balance sway length and the speed of the centre of foot pressure. TUG for dynamic balance.

Significant effects on the static and dynamic balance in both groups.