Table 2 Characteristics and main findings of perceptual and cognitive skills and physical activity studies of older adults
Study | Age range | Number | Type of exercise | Structures/processes investigated | Significant findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bakken et al., (2001) [95] | 72–91 | 10 | Aerobic | Eye tracking with moving stimulus | Tracking abilities tended to improve with aerobic exercise. |
Roth et al. (2003) [86] | 65–95 | 50 | Questionnaires to evaluate PA | Peripheral vision | Reported physical activity was correlated with a better performance in performing a useful field of view task. |
Gauchard et al., (2003) [99] | 66–78 | 26 | Yoga, soft gymnastics, jogging, swimming | Vestibulospinal reflex and ocular movements related to visual stimulus | Reaction time and visual detection was better in the physically active group. |
Barnes et al. (2003) [31] | > 55 | 349 | Cardiorespiratory fitness | Attention, executive function | Worse cardiorespiratory fitness at baseline leads to lower scores on attention and executive function tests. |
Owsley & McGwin (2004) [90] | 55–83 | 342 | Questionnaires to evaluate PA, e.g. asking about household chores, yard work, exercise-like walking, golf, swimming, etc. | Peripheral vision | Reported physical activity was not correlated with a better performance in a useful field of view task. |
Lobjois et al., (2005) [97] | 20–80 | 24 | Tennis (aerobic, strength, balance, coordination) | Eye tracking with moving stimulus at different speeds | All participants performed worst when the velocity of the moving stimulus increased but older non-players showed a higher pronounced effect. |
Pesce et al. (2007) [87] | 60–75 | 25 | Cycling (strength, aerobic) | Visuospatial attention | Physically active older adults show better visuospatial attention than sedentary older adults. |
Lobjois et al., (2008) [98] | 20–80 | 48 | Tennis (aerobic, strength, balance, coordination) | Track and response to a moving stimulus in a conscience timing task | Non-players exhibited more errors than players, especially in the 70–80 year old group. |
Marmeleira et al. (2009) [71] | 60–82 | 32 | Aerobic fitness with cognitive demands | Reaction time, speed processing, movement time, divided attention, peripheral vision, psychomotor performance and executive function | Exercise enhanced reaction time, speed visual processing and divided attention (though the useful field of view) and lower limb mobility. |
Schorer & Baker (2009) [96] | 14–51 | 34 | Handball (aerobic, strength, balance, coordination) | Eye tracking with moving stimulus | Age-declines seem to be more related to motor rather to perception. |
Voss et al. (2010) [35] | 55–80 | 120 | Aerobic | Visuospatial attention | Increase in functional connectivity correlated with aerobic exercise and might lead to an improved visuospatial attention. |
Voelcker-Rehage et al. (2010) [28] | 65–72 | 72 | A battery of fitness tests to assess physical and motor fitness (cardiovascular, muscular strength, movement speed, balance, motor coordination and flexibility) | Executive control, processing speed | Physical and motor fitness are both related to an improved executive control and perceptual speed. |
Pesce et al. (2011) [70] | 60–80 | 48 | Cycling (strength, aerobic) | Visuospatial attention | Older road cyclists show better visual attention than sedentary older adults. |
Marmeleira et al. (2012) [89] | 61–81 | 38 | Questionnaires to evaluate PA | Peripheral vision | Reported physical activity correlated with better performance in a useful field of view task. |
Hung & Kruse (2012) [72] | 60–79 | 96 | Tai-chi (strength, member coordination, balance and cognitive) | Motor speed, visual attention | Older Tai-chi practitioners were faster and had better visual attention than non-athletes of the same age. |
Ballesteros et al. (2013) [1] | > 60 | 40 | Regular physical exercise (e.g., swimming, playing tennis, playing golf, or fitness training) | Executive control and processing speed | Exercise was related to better executive control and processing speed in older adults. |
Muiños & Ballesteros (2014) [26] | 19–68 | 45 | Karate and judo (aerobic, strength, member coordination, balance) | Peripheral vision | The practice of martial arts was related to better peripheral vision. |
Muiños & Ballesteros (2015) [27] | 19–68 | 135 | Karate and judo (aerobic, strength, member coordination, balance) | Dynamic visual acuity | Martial arts practitioners showed better dynamic visual acuity compared to sedentary older adults. |
Ando et al. (2017) [88] | 65–74 | 30 | Not specified | Peripheral vision | The more intensive the physical activity, the better performance is obtained in the Useful Field of View. |
Miller et al. (2017) [73] | 67–79 | 90 | Tai-chi (strength, member coordination, balance and cognitive) | Executive function, visual attention, peripheral vision | Tai-Chi practice correlated with the improvement of cognitive functioning and peripheral vision. |
Zettel-Watson et al. (2017) [54] | 52–89 | 50 | Functional mobility, balance, lower body strength, gait, and aerobic endurance | Physical measures, executive function | Physical performance related to dynamic balance and aerobic endurance was associated with an enhanced processing speed, inhibition and working memory. |
Huebner et al. (2017) [55] | 65–74 | 30 | Aerobic | Fine motor skills | Aerobic exercise improves motor learning. |