Table 1 Characteristics of all participants and participants in each subgroup: physical exercise (PE), virtual reality-based exercise (VRE), brain exercise (BE), and control. Data presenting in mean ± standard deviation (minimum-maximum) or n (%)
Characteristics | All (n = 84) | PE (n = 21) | VRE (n = 21) | BE (n = 21) | Control (n = 21) | p-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 75.8 ± 5.19 | 75.9 ± 5.65 | 75.8 ± 4.89 | 75.6 ± 5.33 | 76.0 ± 5.22 | 0.996 |
(66–85) | (66–85) | (67–83) | (66–85) | (67–85) |  | |
Gender | ||||||
 Male | 47 (56%) | 13 (62%) | 10 (48%) | 12 (57%) | 12 (57%) | – |
 Female | 37 (44%) | 8 (38%) | 11 (52%) | 9 (43%) | 9 (43%) | – |
Body mass Index (kg/m2) | 23.3 ± 29.9 | 23.7 ± 4.24 | 22.6 ± 2.45 | 24.4 ± 2.32 | 22.7 ± 2.47 | 0.161 |
(17.4–31.6) | (17.4–31.6) | (17.9–28.0) | (19.4–28.7) | (18.7–27.0) |  | |
MMSE (scores) | 25.2 ± 1.17 | 24.7 ± 0.96 | 25.5 ± 1.22 | 25.2 ± 1.41 | 25.2 ± 1.00 | 0.156 |
(24–28) | (24–27) | (24–28) | (24–28) | (24–27) |  | |
Education (years) | 9.15 ± 2.95 | 8.81 ± 2.46 | 8.67 ± 2.27 | 9.62 ± 3.44 | 9.52 ± 3.53 | 0.643 |
(5–15) | (6–15) | (5–15) | (5–15) | (5–15) |  | |
Education level | ||||||
 Graduate | 11 (13%) | 4 (19%) | 2 (9.5%) | 1 (5%) | 4 (19%) | – |
 High school | 33 (39%) | 8 (38%) | 7 (33%) | 9 (43%) | 9 (43%) | – |
 Middle school | 31 (37%) | 7 (33%) | 12 (57%) | 9 (43%) | 3 (14%) | – |
 Primary school | 9 (11%) | 2 (9.5%) | 0 (0%) | 2 (9%) | 5 (24%) | – |