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Table 1 Characteristics of included studies

From: The effects of cognitive-motor training interventions on executive functions in older people: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Eligible author and year

Participants (age(M,SD), sex)

Study aims

Intervention (cognitive-motor task)

Cognitive task and measurement

Motor task and measurement

Training duration

Randomised controlled trials

 Azadian (2016) [26]

N = 30

IG1:n = 10, 73.9 ± 5.5, n.a.

IG2:n = 10, 73.8 ± 3.9, n.a.

CG:n = 10, 73.7 ± 4.4; n.a.

evaluation of the effect of two cognitive training methods on pattern of gait

IG1: GDT

IG2: CT

CG: -

INH/PS (A-mo/Vi-mo): Reaction time to auditory stimulus/visual stimulus on screen;

WM: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Digit Symbol B/F

walking ST and DT condition: Vicon System, asymmetry index (AS)

18 h/ 3 × 45 min p.w. for 8 wk.

 Bacha (2018) [32]

N = 46

IG: n = 23, 8 m/15f

CG: n = 23, 4 m/19f

effectiveness of KAG games versus CPT

to improve postural control, gait, fitness and cognition

IG1: EXG

CG: PHY

GF: MoCa

Postural Control: Mini-BESTest;

Gait: FGA

Fitness: 6MST

14 h, 2 × 60 min p.w for 7 wk.

 Eggenberger (2015) [27]

N = 89

IG1:n = 30, 77.3 ± 6.3,n.a.

IG2:n = 29, 78.5 ± 5.1,n.a. IG3:n = 30, 80.8 ± 4.7,n.a.

comparison of effects of physical MCT training to a stepping-based Exergame on cognition

IG1:GDT-EXG (Stepmania)

IG2:GDT- EXG (Memory)

IG3:PHY (Walking)

EF/SH(vi-mo):TMT-B

WM: Paired-Associates Learning Task; ATT: Age concentration test A and B; PS (vi-mo) TMT-A, DSST and WAIS-R; GCF: MoCA

n.a.

36 h / 3 × 60 min p.w.

for 3 12 wk. / 24 wk.

 Eggenberger (2016) [33]

N = 33;

IG:n = 19, 72.8 ± 5.9, 7 m/12f

CG:n = 14 77.8 ± 7.4,5 m/9f

effects of DT video game against conventional balance training on PFC activity during walking and on EF

IG: GDT- EXG (Stepmania)

CG:ST (Balance)

EF/SH (vi-ma) TMT-B

ATT/ INH (vi-ma) Stroop test

GCF: MoCA

lower extremity function: SPPB

18 h / 3 × 30 min p.w. for 12 wk.

 Falbo (2016) [15]

N = 36;

IG: n = 20,71.5 ± 6.7, 2 m/18f

CG: n = 16,73.7 ± 4.5, 2 m/14 f

benefits of a DT training specifically on EF compared to physical training with lower executive demands

IG: GDT

CT: ST

EF (A-ve): verbal RNG Test

INH (A-ve) Turning point index, adjacency, runs

WM (A-ve): redundancy, coupon, repetition gap

walking ST and DT: speed, gait length and cadence recording with photocell system

24 h / 2 × 60 min p.w. for 12 wk.

 Hars (2014) [34]

N = 134;

IG:n = 66,75 ± 8, 2 m/64f

CG: n = 68, 76 ± 6,3 m/65f

effects of a multi-task music based training on cognitive functioning and mood

IG: GDT

CG: -

GCF (vi-ma): MMSE, CDT,

FAB

n.a.

25 h/ 2 × 30 min p.w. for 25 wk.

 Hiyamizu (2012) [35]

N = 43;

IG: n = 21 71.2 ± 4.4,5 m/16f

CG: n = 22, 72.9 ± 5.1,12 m/10f

effects of a DT balance training on postural control while performing a cognitive task

IG: GDT

CG:ST (balance and strength)

EF (vi-ma): TMT (B-A)

INH/ATT (vi-ve): Stroop task

Standing and walking, Chair Standing Test, TUGT, Functional Reach Test, COP displacements

24 h / 2 × 60 p.w. for 12 wk.

 Kitazawa (2015) [36]

N = 60

G:n = 30, 76.8 ± 4.4, 17 m/13f,

CG: n = 30, 75.5 ± 3.7, 10 m/20f

effect of a net-stepping exercise on cognitive performance and gait function

IG: GDT

CG: -

GCF: Touch Panel-Type Demetia Assesment Scale (TDAS)

Mobility: TUG

8 h / 1 × 60 min p.w. for 8 wk.

 MacLean (2014) [37]

N = 45;

IG1:n = 15,

73.2 ± 5.36,4 m/11f

IG2: n = 15, 69.1 ± 3.37,6 m/9f

IG3: n = 15, 72.9 ± 6.49,7 m/8f

effects of musical training on the gait and cognition in healthy older people

IG1: GDT

IG2: ST

IG3: ST

GCF: MMSE;

EF/ SH/ PS: TMT A/B;

WM (ve) DS b/f; Immediate and delayed story recall

Gait (ST/DT conditions): velocity, stability

n.a.

 Malliot (2012) [29]

N = 32,

IG n = 16, 73.47 ± 4.10

CG n = 16, 73.47 ± 3.0;

5 m/27f

determine whether exergame training sport activity would show transfer to cognitive functions

IG:GDT- EXG

CG: -

EF/INH/ ATT (vi-ve): Stroop Test, TMT A/B. Matrix Reasoning Test;

WM (vi-ve): Spatial Span Test b/f, Directional Headings, Mental Rotation Letter Digit,;

PS: cancellation test, number comparison test; PS(vi-ma): Reaction time test, Plate Tapping test

Heart rate (6 min walking); Chair Stand

8-ft-up and go; Arm curls, “back scratch”

12 h/ 1 × 60 min p.w. for 12 wk.

 Nishiguchi (2015) [38]

N = 48

IG: n = 24, 73.0 ± 4.8, 13 m/11 fm

CG: n = 24, 73.5 ± 5.6, 13 m/11f

investigate whether a physical and cognitive program can improve cognitive function and brain activation efficiency in older people

IG: GDT

CG: -

GCF: MMSE

WM: WMS-R

EF/ATT PS: (vi): TMT B-A, Go-No-Go-Stimulus, Test off attentional control

10-m walking test, TUGT, 5-CtST

18 h/ 1 × 90 minp.w. for 12 wk.

 Ordnung (2017) [30]

N = 30

IG: n = 15, 69 ± 79 6.34, n.a.

CG: n = 15, 68 ± 4.67, n.a.

investigate the effect of a whole-body Exergame training intervention

IG: GDT- EXG

CG:-

ATT/PS: Test of Attentional Performance;

WM (vi-ma): n-back task 2;

INH: Go/ No-Go-Stimulus

3 min. Step Test, upper body muscle endurance test, grip strength, hand motor skills; Motor RT: Ruler Drop Test, Balance (Balance Board)

12 h/ 2 × 60 min p.w. for 6 wk.

 Schaettin (2016) [39]

N = 27; Mean 80

IG1: n = 13, 8 m/5f

IG2: n = 14, 80, 7 m/7f

compare Exergame training with conventional balance training

IG1: SDT- EXG

IG2: Balance

EF (vi-ma):computerized TAP (WM, SHI, divided ATT, INH (Go−/No-Go-task))

n.a.

15 h/ 3 × 30 min p.w. for 10 wk.

 Schoene (2013) [31]

N = 37

IG: n = 15, 77.5 ± 4.5, n.a.

CG; n = 17, 78.4 ± 4.5,n.a.

effects of a stepping exergae on stepping performance and associated fall risk

IG: SDT- EXG

CG: -

PS (vi-mo): Choice Stepping Reaction time;

EF: TMT;

DTC:TUG-DT

Physiological Profile Assessment (Fall Risk); TUGT, 5STS, Alternate Step Test (AST

16 h/ 3 × 20 min p.w. for 16 wk.

 Schoene (2015) [40]

N = 90

IG: n = 47, 82 ± 7, 66%f

CG: n = 43, 81 ± 7,67%f

effectiveness of step-based exercise game on cognitive functions associated with falls

IG: SDT- EXG

CG: education brochure

EF(vi-mo): Stroop Stepping Test (SST);

PS/ATT (vi-mo): Letter-digit test, CRT + CSRT; TMT A, Attentional network test;

INH: Victoria Stroop Task DTC:TUG-DT; WM: Digit span B;

n.a.

16 h // 3 × 20 min p.w. for 16 wk.

 Wollesen (2017a) [41]

N = 95

IG1: n = 26,72.2 ± 4.6,10 m/16f,

IG2: n = 30, 69.8 ± 5.7,2 m/28f

CG1: n = 19, 72.9 ± 4.4, m/12f .

CG2: n = 20, 72.7 ± 5.3, 3 m/17f

effects of a DT training in people with and without concern about falling on walking performance

IG1: GDT (FES-I < 20)

IG2: GDT (FES-I > 20)

CG1: - (FES-I < 20)

CG2: - (FES-I > 20)

DT/ATT performance (vi-ve): Stroop Task

Walking performance:

ST =30-s walking test

DT: 30-s-walking test + (vi-ve) Stroop Task

12 h1 × 60 min p.w. for 12 wk.

 Wollesen (2017b) [42]

N = 78

IG1: n = 29,70.7 ± 4.9, 7 m/22f

IG2: n = 23, 71.7 ± 4.9,8 m/15f

CG: n = 26, 73.7 ± 5.0,7 m/19f

effects of a DT balancetraining and a ST strength and resistance training on motor performance during DT walking

IG1: GDT

IG2: PHY (Strength and resistance)

CG: -

ATT/DT performance (au-ve): Stroop task while walking

Walking performance: ST and DT conditions

12 h/ 1 × 60 min p.w. for 12 wk.

 You (2009) [43]

N = 13

IG: n = 8,70.5 ± 6.8,2 m/11f

CG: n = 5, 68.0 ± 3.3, 1 m/4f

determine long-term practice effects of CGI on cognition and gait performance in older people with a history of falls

IG: SDT

CG: ST (walking)

Memory recall (ve): memorise and recall words

walking performance under DT conditions: velocity; stability; COP displacements

15 h/ 5 × 30 min p.w. for 6 wk.

Controlled clinical trials and other

 Ansai (2017) [25]

N = 80;

IG: n = 41,68.5 ± 8.4, n.a.

CG:n = 39, 68.5 ± 6.3; n.a.

effects of the addition of a dual task to MCT on cognition

IG: TDT (MCT + CT),

CG: MCT

GCF: MMSE, MoCA;

VS: CDT; EF (Ve-mo):

DTC: TUGT-DT memorising number and dialling while walking

TUGT: mobility

60 h/ 3 × 50 min p.w. for 12 wk.

 Bisson (2007) [44]

N = 24;

IG1: n = 12; 74. ± 3.6,7 m/5f

IG2: n = 12, 74 ± 4.92,2 m/9f

determine the effect of VR and BF training on balance and reaction time in older people

IG1: GDT- EXG (VR)

IG2: GDT- EXG (BF)

PS (au-ve): verbal reaction to auditory cue

COP displacement; CB&M Scale

10 h/ 2 × 30 min p.w. for 10 wk.

 Chuang (2015) [45]

N = 26,

IG1:n = 7, 69.43 ± 3.82,

IG2:n = 11, 67.01 ± 1.67,

CG:n = 8, 68.25 ± 3.96; 26f/0 m

examine whether DDR training would exert similar effect on interference control as that brisk walking in elderly individual

IG1: SDT- EXG (DDR)

IG2: ST (walking)

CG: -

EF (Vi-mo): reaction to visual stimulus on screen in reaction time/ms; EEG recording

INH: Flanker Test

n.a.

18 h/ 3 × 30 min p.w. for 12 wk.

 Heiden (2010) [46]

N = 16, Mean Age 77

IG n = 9, 5 f/ 4 m

CG = 7, 6 f/ 1 m

Effects of a games-based balance training program on general fitness and attentional demands in postural control

IG: GDT

CT: -

PS (A-Ve): reaction on auditory simulus

CB&M Scale, 6 min walking, COP displacements (RMS)

8 h/ 2 × 30 min p.w. for 8 wk.

 Kayama (2014) [28]

n = 41; > 65

IG: n = 26, n.a.

CG: n = 15, n.a.

whether or not a DT Thai Chi training program would effectively improve cognitive functions

IG: ST+ EXG (GDT Thai Chi)

CG: Standardised Training

EF/PS: TMT A/B

VF (ve): Verbal Fluency Task

n.a.

60 h/ 1 × 80 min p.w. for 12 wk.

 Morita (2018) [47]

N = 19

IG: n = 8, 75.0 ± 1.5, 8 m,

CG: n = 11, 71.9 ± 4.0, 2 m/9f

effect of 2-year cognitive–motor dual-task (DT) training on cognitive functions and motor ability

IG: GDT

CG: -

GCF: Modified Mini-Mental State(3MS)

PS/ATT (vi): TMT A/B

Quadriceps isometric muscle strength motor ability: TUGT, maximal step length (MSL)

104 h/ 1 × 60 min p.w. for 104 wk

 Theill (2013) [48]

N = 63

IG1: n = 21, 72.39 ± 4.19,

IG2: n = 16, 73.33 ± 6.08,

CG: n = 26, 70.90 ± 4.77,

effects of simultaneously performed WM and PHY training on cognitive and motor-cognitive dual task performance

IG1: GDT

IG2: ST (cognitive training)

CG: -

paired associates learning;

ATT (vi-ma): continuous performance task

EF:sequential learning

PS(vi-ma): Digit-letter task

WM (ve): n-nack task

Walking ST/DT conditions

13 h/ 2 × 40 min p.w. for 10 wk.

  1. Legend: Participants: IG intervention group, CG control group, f female, m male, MMSE Mini Mental Status Examination, MoCA Montreal Cognitive Assesment; Intervention: CL Cognitive load, KAG kinect adventures games, CPT conventional physical therapy, MT Motor task, MCT Multicomponent Training, DT Dual Tasking, ST Single Tasking, GDT General Dual-Tasking, SDT Specific Dual-Tasking, EXG Exergaming, CT Computerized training, VR Virtual Reality, BF Biofeedback, PHY Physical Training; Cognitive assessment:GCF Global cognitive function, PS Processing Speed, Sh Shifting, EF Executive Function, INH Inhibition, WM Working Memory, ATT Attention, VS Visuospatial, DTC Dual-Task Costs, Stimulus-response: A-Ve Auditory Verbal, A-ma auditory manual, Vi-Ve Visual-verbal, Vi-mo Visual-motor, Ve-mo Verbal-motor, Assessments: TUGT-DT Timed up and go test with dual tasking, motor task, TUGT Timed up and go test, TMT A/B Trail Marking test A/B, DS B/F Digit Symbol backwards/forwards, CSRT Choice Stepping Reaction Time, Training duration: p.w. per week., wk week