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Table 3 Data extraction of included studies

From: The effects of cognitive-motor training interventions on executive functions in older people: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Author

Training intervention

Motor-component

Cognitive component

Cognitive measurement

Progression

Control group(s)

Results

Ansai [25]

GDT

Warm up, muscle strengthening, balance, coordination, flexibility

Working memory, inhibition

MMSE (main scores and subscales)

MoCA (main scores and subscales), TUG-DT

In the complexity of the cognitive task

Physical exercises without DT

No differences between the groups regarding the cognitive outcomes; the MMSE and the visuo-spatial test of the MoCA increased; DTC decreased

Azaidian [26]

GDT

Standing and shifting center of gravity

Walking exercises to the front, backwards and sides

Working memory tasks

Verbal fluency tasks

Visual search tasks

Reaction time while (1) sitting, (2) standing, (3) walking, (4) selective (respond to direction of task) Stop Signal Task to measure inhibitory control

Working memory with Wechsler Adult Intelligence scale and Digital Symbol substitution test

Session 1–6 only motor training

Session 7–12 motor training with simple cognitive tasks

Session 13–24

Task complexity increased

CG 1: computer- based EF training

CG 2: no intervention

GDT training only improved the Wechsler forward in comparison to control groups

EF training improved SST correct answers and wrong answers; stride asymmetry while DT walking

Bacha [32]

GDT-EX Xbox Kinect adventure game

Fast multidirectional movements (steps, squats, jumps, coordinated movements of upper and lower limbs; trunk movements in three planes

Reaction time; visuospatial attention, shifting of attention, decision making, immediate planning and execution

MoCA

Not reported

conventional physiotherapy including balance, endurance and muscle strength, motor coordination; stretching

Both groups increased within all performance measurements; the control group increased walking capacity

Bisson [44]

Specific Virtual reality DT training

Jiggle a virtual ball while standing

Reaction time; visuospatial attention, immediate planning and execution

Reaction Time test

Not reported

Biofeedback training with shifting the center of mass

No significant group differences; both groups improved in the cognitive task

Chuang [45]

GDT-EX - video dance

Stepping forward, backwards and sidewards according to the music and presented steps on a screen (following an arrow)

Reaction time, Attention and visuo-spatial orientation

Flanker task

Not reported

CG 1: brisk walking

CG 2: inactive

Reaction times decreased in the intervention group as well as in the brisk walking group

Eggenberger 2015 [27]

GDT-EX - video dance

Stepping forward, backwards and sidewards according to the music and presented steps on a screen (following an arrow)

Attention; reaction time and visuo-spatial orientation

EF: Trail Making B

Long-term visual memory,

Long-term verbal memory (story recall)

Wechsler Memory scale revised

Progression adapted to participants abilities

CG1: treadmill walking memory

CG2: walking

Both DT training groups improved the TMT-B; over a longer period of time the Dance group still improved whereas the memory group declined; same results for the executive control tasks; GDT-EX improved Working memory, attentional control; Go/no-go and set shifting

Eggenberger 2016 [33]

GDT-EX - video dance

Stepping forward, backwards and sidewards according to the music and presented steps on a screen (following an arrow)

Attention; reaction time and visuo-spatial orientation

EF: Trail Making B

Stroop task

Working memory task

MoCa

Processing speed

Progression adapted to participants abilities

Balance training on different surfaces

The intervention group improved the Trail making B, MoCA and the Stroop task

Falbo [15]

GDT

Physical- cognitive DT training; walking at different speeds; coordination training, balance performance; strengthening, stretching with music together with different cognitive tasks

Inhibition, working memory and set-shifting

Random number generation task to address EF; dual task cost while walking

Rising difficulties (not further described)

Same exercise program under single task condition

The GDT group improved cognitive function

Hars [34]

GDT with music

Walking and handling of objects; reaction to the rhythm of the music

Reaction time

MMSE; Frontal assessment battery (FAB)

Progression mentioned but not further described

No intervention

Intervention group increased MMSE

Heiden [46]

SDT balance

Body shifting to control virtual paddle

Reaction time; visuospatial attention, immediate planning and execution

Reaction time

Chair based exercise with muscle strengthening

Reaction time decreased in the intervention group

 

Hiyamizu [35]

GDT balance

Strength training, balance and walking training using different undergrounds in combination with verbal fluency, arithmetic and visual search task

Working memory

Visuospatial tasks

Trail making A and B

Stroop task

Not reported

Same program but ST

Only Stroop task performance improved in the GDT group

Kayama [28]

GDT and SDT (exercises with specific Dual task Tai Chi)

Aerobic training, progressive muscle strengthening, flexibility and balance; rhythmic stepping exercise with cognition; 5 min Dual task Tai Chi at the end

Unclear; Dual task Tai Chi includes visuospatial tasks

Verbal fluency test; Trail making B

Only reported for strengthening

Same training than intervention group without Dual task Tai Chi

the intervention group improved the Delta TMT

Kitazewa [36]

SDT net step exercises

Steps within a net in a predefined way; every session learning a new combination; avoid to step on the net; than performing a line with steps in the net while singing a children song

Working memory task

Touch panel type dementia scale; Touch M system addresses visuospatial function; the TDAS is a modification of the Alzheimer’s Desease Asssessment Scale

Increasing of steps and difficulty of the combination

No intervention

Thouch M score increased more in the intervention group;

Naming fingers as part of the TDAS improved in the intervention group

MacLean [37]

SDT

Walking with adjusting to the speed of music; ST walking, music walking; DT walking with music and counting backwards

Working memory

MMSE; TMT A-B; Wechsler memory scale revised

Digit span forward and backward; Story recall

DT walking

Not reported

CG1: walking to music without adjusting

CG2: walking without music

MT training improved DT walking

Maillot [29]

GDT-EX (Nintendo Wii)

Body shifting and arm movements in front of the screen or on the Wii balance board

Visuo spatial tasks

Processing speed tasks

TMT A-B, Stroop test

Letter set tests

Matrix reasoning test

Digit symbol substation test

Spatial span test

Directional heading test

Mental rotation test

Cancellation test

Number comparison test

Reaction time test

Plate tapping test

Not reported

Non active

the intervention group improved in all cognitive tasks except of the visuo spatial tasks

Morita [47]

GDT

Mental gymnastics with complicated finger movements; resistance training with DT, aerobic exercises with changing movement directions and DT; flexibility exercises

Working memory; reaction time

Modified minimental State (3MS)

TMT with a touch panel

Not reported

Not active

Intervention group maintained cognitive status whereas control group decreased

Nischiguschi [38]

GDT

Stretching, muscle strength, DT categories (working memory, reaction time, visuospatial tasks)

Working memory, reaction time

Visuospatial tasks

MMSE; Wechsler memory scale revised

TMT A-B; N-Back

Reported for strength training but no further details

No intervention

Intervention group better results in WMS-R and TMT

Ordnung [30]

GDT- EX X boxâ„¢360 Kinectâ„¢

Whole-body movements to move an avatar on screen

Attention, visuospatial function, reaction time

Shifting and decision making

Attention while being seated with Test of Attentional Performance; Simple reaction time/Alertness while being seated in front of a computer: response (finger pressing) to a visual stimuli on screen; Working memory (seated) with the n-back task)

Not reported

No intervention

No significant improvement in tested cognitive functions, but improvements in fine motor skills of the left hand

Schaettin [39]

GDT-EX

lower extremity movements, stepping according to force platform

Attention; reaction time and visuo-spatial orientation

Attention, inhibition, working memory (Test for attentional performance), Cognitive Function (MMSE)

Not reported (warm up 5 min; training 20 min, cool down 5 min)

CG: traditional balance training, static and dynamic exercises, open eyes and closed eyes

Four EF’s increased in the EXG group and one (shifting) in the CG

Schoene 2013 [31]

SDT-EX Dance training

Standing, stepping, weight shifting

Attention; reaction time and visuo-spatial orientation

Processing speed (Choice stepping reaction time; TMT A), shifting (TMT B), Dual-task costs (TUG-cog)

Frist session supervised by an instructor, follow-up sessions individualized sessions in homes

CG: no intervention

Improvement in step reaction and movement times

Schoene 2015 [40]

SDT-EX Dance training

Standing, stepping, weight shifting

Attention; reaction time and visuo-spatial orientation

Inhibition (Stoop Stepping Test); Working Memory (letter-digit test, digit span backwards), Processing speed/ Attention (Test for attentional network test, TMTA, CRT+ CSRT; shifting (TMT B); Dual task costs (TUG-cog)

Instruction at the beginning of the trial; conduction unsupervised in individuals’ homes

CG: educational brochure in falls prevention

IG improvement in processing speed and mental rotation, set- shifting increased with a higher dose of game playing; individuals with poorer baseline function in IG showed greater improvement

Theill [48]

GDT

Cardiovascular treadmill training; walking

Verbal Working memory

(selective) Attention, working memory, paired associates learning, processing speed, Dual task costs

Not reported

IG2: working memory training (single)

CG: no intervention

Improvement in executive control, no improvement in selective attention, more improvement in IG in paired associates learning

Wollesen 2017a [41]

GDT

Standing, balancing, muscle training

Working memory, reaction time

Visuospatial tasks; task prioritization, task shifting

Dual tasks costs (walking under DT and ST conditions), Inhibition (seated Stroop Test/ walking while undertaking Stroop Test)

Two phase intervention: Phase 1 (wk. 1–6); training of daily actions with likelihood of fall risks; Phase 2 (wk. 7–12) Task priorization

IG2 single task strength and resistance

CG: no intervention

No significant improvement in IG1 in cognitive functions

Wollesen 2017b [42]

GDT

Walking, standing, balancing,

Working memory, reaction time

Visuospatial tasks; task prioritization, task shifting

Dual-task costs (walking under ST and DT conditions), Inhibition (verbal Stroop task)

Two phase intervention: Phase 1 (wk. 1–6); training of daily actions with likelihood of fall risks; Phase 2 (wk. 7–12) Task priorization and transfer into daily life

IG2: ST conditions

CG: no intervention

Reduced number of errors in IG in Stroop test

You [43]

SDT

Walking, standing

Memorizing

Working memory (memory recall %)

Not reported

CG: no intervention

Memory performance improved under DT conditions