Table 2 Overview of the included studies

Ansai et al. 2016 [29, 30]

randomized, three-armed controlled trial

n = 69 (22/47);

82.4 ± 2.4 years;

n = 1

MT: multicomponent training (n = 23); RT: resistance training (n = 23); CG: no treatment (n = 23)

16 weeks; 3 sessions/week; 60 min/session

Warm-up (cycle ergometer); endurance; strength (major muscle groups: upper limb, abdominal, lower limb; with dumbbells, ankle weights); balance/coordination (static balance, static and dynamic weight transfer, walking on a line, walking on unstable surfaces, obstacle transposition and deviation); cool-down (stretching)

Endurance: 60–80% of reserve heart rate adjusted by age and sex; 3x3min; reserve heart rate increased every 3 weeks; strength: 14–17/20 RPE; up to 3 × 15 repetitions

Mobility: TUG with cognitive task, with motor task (time [s]); 5 repetition STS (time [s]); balance: 1-legged standing right, left (time [s]); tandem standing (time [s]); cognition: MoCA (score), CDT (score), verbal fluency task (score)

n = 9 (mild muscle pain in MT); 35% of the MT and 57% of the RT training group carried out at least 50% of the sessions

7

Bohrer et al. 2019 [19]

randomized, two-armed controlled trial

n = 34 (n.a. /n.a.);

70.3 ± 5.7 years;

n = 6

EG: multicomponent training (n = 16); CG: no treatment (n = 18)

12 weeks; 3 sessions/week; 45 min/session

Warm-up (dancing or game); strength; agility (lateral displacements, transpositions of obstacles, hopping); coordination; cool-down

Strength: 12–16/20 RPE; participants were encouraged to perform the concentric phase as fast as they could; 2 min rest between exercises; progression of loads every 2–3 weeks; maintaining movement speed; agility/coordination: increasing difficulty of execution

Strength: isokinetic ankle extension and flexion (peak torque [Nm/kg]); mobility: TUG (time [s]); gait: 10 m walking (speed [m/s])

n.a.; > 80% for all participants

5

Braga et al. 2020 [37]

randomized, two-armed controlled trial

n = 32 (n.a./n.a.); 71 ± 2.1 years; n = n.a.

EG: multicomponent training (n = 16); CG: no treatment (n = 16)

12 weeks; 3 sessions/week; 40 min/session

Warm-up (stretching, calisthenics); agility (forward-backward running, direction-changing footwork, climbing/descending stairs); strength (squats, push-ups, sit-ups, jumping jacks, walking lunges, dips, six-point support planks, pulse lunges, reverse lunges, skipping, mountain climbers, arm and leg raises); cool-down

30, 45 or 60s of recovery, always 2x greater than stimulus time, encouragement for passive recovery

Strength: muscular endurance of upper limbs as push-ups (repetitions); muscular endurance of abdomen as sit-ups (repetitions), standing jump (distance), isometric hip, knee and ankle strength (time); endurance: 6 min walking (distance [m])

n = 0; n.a.

4

Carvalho et al. 2009 [38]

randomized, two-armed controlled trial

n = 57 (0/57);

68.9 ± 3.5 years;

n = 0

EG: multicomponent training (n = 32); CG: no treatment (n = 25)

32 weeks; 2 sessions/week; 60 min/session

Warm-up (slow walking, calisthenics, stretching); endurance (slow walking, jogging, dancing, aerobics, step choreographies with steps); strength (stair stepping, knee flexion, arm raise, shoulder abduction, shoulder adduction, shoulder rotation, squatting, biceps curl, triceps extension; with stairs, elastic bands, free weights); agility/reaction (games with change of direction and velocity, response to diverse stimuli; with sticks and balloons); balance (static, dynamic); cool-down (stretching, respiration)

Endurance: 12–14/20 RPE; no progression; strength: 12–16/20 RPE; 1–8 repetitions; increase to up to 2 × 12+ repetitions; agility/reaction: gradually decreased hand support

Strength: arm curl (repetitions [number]);

mobility: 30s chair-stand (repetitions [number]), 8-ft up-and-go (time [s]); endurance: 6 min walking (distance [m])

n.a.; 91% in EG (84–100%)

5

Caserotti et al. 2008 [39]

randomized, two-armed controlled trial

n = 44 (44/0);

75 ± n.a. years;

n = 5

TG: multicomponent training (n = 16); CG: no treatment (n = 28)

36 weeks; 2 sessions/week; 60 min/session

Warm-up; endurance (e.g. walking, running); strength (e.g. half-squat; with elastic tubes); postural control; stretching; reaction

Endurance: 65% of maximal heart rate; at least 30 min; strength: continuous individual increase of repetitions, duration and intensity

Strength: counter movement jump, squat jump (height [cm]); mobility: 5-repeated chair rise (time [s]); gait: 10 m maximal walking, 30 m maximal walking (speed [m/s])

n.a., n.a.

5

Cwirlej-Sozanska et al. 2018 [13]

randomized, two-armed controlled trial

n = 44 (8/36);

67.6 ± 3.7 years;

n = 6

MME: multicomponent training (n = 21); CG: health education (n = 23)

16 weeks; 2 sessions/week; 60 min/session

Warm-up (low active exercises, breathing); endurance; balance (with and without visual control); strength (e.g. with elastic bands); agility (body position change, gripping, lifting and moving objects, gait re-education); stretching (arms, shoulders, girdle, legs, trunk); cool-down (relaxation, breathing); simultaneous cognitive elements (counting backwards, memorizing and associating certain words with movements of extremities)

Strength: 80% of 1RM; gradual progression of load; endurance: 40–50% of maximal heart rate for 15 min; increase to 50–70% for at least 20 min

Strength: arm curl (repetitions [number]);

mobility: TUG (time [s]), 30s chair stand (repetitions [number]), 8-ft up-and-go (time [s]); balance: functional reach (distance [cm]), tandem stance, tandem walk, tandem pivot (scale), static balance (COP sway [mm]); endurance: 2 min stepping (repetitions [number])

n = 0; n.a.

6

Englund et al. 2005 [40]

randomized, two-armed controlled trial

n = 48 (0/48);

73.0 ± 4.3 years;

n = 6

EG: multicomponent training (n = 24); CG: no treatment (n = 24)

48 weeks; 2 sessions/week; 50 min/session

Warm-up; strength (legs, abdominal, back muscles by means of body weight; with dumbbells); endurance/coordination (walking, jogging, steps in different combinations and directions with coordinated arm movements); balance/coordination (one-leg standing and more advanced coordinated steps); cool-down (stretching)

Intensity self-rated; participants allowed to rest if necessary; Strength: 2 × 8–12 repetitions; dumbbell weight increased in progressive phase; Balance/coordination: more complex or faster movements

Strength: isometric knee extension, isometric handgrip strength (force [N]); gait: 30 m maximal walking (speed [m/s]); balance: 1-legged stance (time [s]), Berg Balance Scale (scale)

n.a., 67% (23–95%)

5

Freiberger et al. 2007 [41]

randomized, three-armed controlled trial

n = 217 (120/97);

75.9 ± 4 years;

n = 26

PI: multicomponent training (n = 65); FI: fitness intervention (n = 69); CG: no treatment (n = 83)

16 weeks; 2 sessions/week; 60 min/session

Strength (with dumbbells, ankle weights); balance (standing balance, dynamic weight transfer and stepping strategies); coordination (activities of daily living, activities under time pressure, sensory awareness); perception (including body orientation and space perception); competence training (social competence, material competence, enhancing identity)

n.a.

Mobility: TUG (time [s]), STS (time [s]), maximum step length (distance [cm]); gait: 10 m walking, 10 m maximal walking (speed [m/s])

n = 0; PI: median number of sessions attended = 26 (81%, 0–32), FI: median number of sessions attended = 26 (81%, 0–32

7

Karinkanta et al. 2007 [14]

randomized, four-armed controlled trial

n = 149 (0/149);

72.6 ± 2.3 years;

n = 5

RES: resistance training (n = 37); BAL: balance-jumping training (n = 37); COMB: multicomponent training (n = 38); CON: no treatment (n = 37)

48 weeks; 3 sessions/week; 50 min/session

Warm-up; strength (raising from a chair with weight vest, squatting, leg presses, hip abduction, hip extension, calf rise, rowing; with strength training machines); balance/agility (impact exercises, changes of direction, acceleration, deceleration back and forth, sideways walking with stops and turns with music); cool-down

Strength: 2 × 10–15 repetitions at 50–60% of 1RM; 3 × 8–10 repetitions at 75–80% 1RM with > 18/20 RPE; 2 min rest between sets; balance/agility: customization; increase of difficulty of movements, steps, impacts and jumps

Strength: leg press (force [N]); mobility: figure-of-8 running (time [s])

n = 14 (musculoskeletal injuries); 67% (74% in RES, 67% in COMB, 59% in BAL)

7

Klusmann et al. 2010 [18]

randomized, three-armed controlled trial

n = 259 (0/259);

73.6 ± 4.2 years;

n = 29

EG: multicomponent training (n = 91); PCG: computer education (n = 92); CG: no treatment (n = 76)

24 weeks; 3 sessions/week; 90 min/session

endurance (bicycle ergometer, treadmill); strength; stretching; balance; coordination

n.a.

Cognition: Rivermead behavioural memory test - immediate recall (score), − delayed recall (score), free and cued selective reminding test - short delay (score), − long delay (score), semantic verbal fluency (score), stroop test (score), trail making test A/B (score); endurance: 6 min walking (distance [m])

n.a.; n.a.

8

Kovacs et al. 2013 [35]

randomized, two-armed controlled trial

n = 76 (0/76);

68.4 ± 5.9 years;

n = 7

EG: multicomponent training (n = 38); CG: no treatment (n = 38)

25 weeks; 2 sessions/week; 60 min/session

Warm-up (stretching); strength/balance (sitting on a chair: arm lifting overhead, reaching towards floor on side; standing: steps in all directions, reaching overhead, partial squats, turning in standing, tandem standing, sit to stand and stand to sit, high stepping in place; chairs); agility (relay race with heel walking, toe walking, walking on line, walking on exercise mat, slalom around cones, backward walking with second task, ballgames; with balls, cones, exercise mats); cool-down (stretching, breathing)

Strength: 4–8 repetitions; individual adaptation of exercises; other: decreasing support, increasing distances, increasing difficulty, increasing speed; balls with increasing sizes and weights; progressive repetitions and difficulty

Mobility: TUG (score); balance: 1-legged stance (time [s])

n.a., 81% (56–100%)

8

Leite et al. 2015 [42]

randomized, two-armed controlled trial

n = 52 (22/30);

69.1 ± 3.2 years;

n = 9

EG: multicomponent training (n = 26); CG: resistance training (n = 26)

12 weeks; 2 sessions/week; 75-90 min/session

Warm-up; coordination; strength; agility (integrated cognitive challenges, moving through space using walking; with hurdles, ropes); floor exercises (stretching, strength, relaxation)

Walking faster, longer steps, adding movements of the arms, increasing difficulty; reducing base of support

Strength: isometric handgrip strength (strength [kg]); mobility: chair stand (time [s]); gait: 7 m normal walking, 7 m maximal walking (speed [m/s]); endurance: progressive submaximal exercise test (VO₂peak [ml/kg/min])

n.a.; EG: 90%, CG: 91%

5

Lord et al. 1996 [31, 32]

randomized, two-armed controlled trial

n = 160 (0/160);

71.1 ± 5.2 years;

n = 28

EG: multicomponent training (n = 80); CG: no treatment (n = 80)

20 weeks; 2 sessions/week; 60 min/session

Warm-up; endurance (fast walking, stepping, leg lifts, placing foot to the front, side and behind, lunging, heel rises, trunk rotation, flexion, extension of neck, back and pelvis, knee lifts, opposite elbow to raised knee, pelvic floor contractions, belly dancing, shoulder extension, flexion, adduction, abduction, rotation, circling arms, biceps curls, bench press, row, shoulder lever, mock boxing, shoulder rolls, shrugs); strength (lifting bodyweight, e.g. modified push-ups, while seated, lifting leg off floor while resisting movement with hand pressing on knee); balance/coordination (standing on one leg with other raised, ball games requiring catching while standing or moving, kicking a ball, throwing, running under skipping rope, team ball games); stretching; cool-down (relaxation)

n.a.

Strength: isometric knee extension, knee flexion, ankle dorsiflexion, hip extension, hip flexion (force [N]); gait: 11.2 m walking (speed [m/s]); balance: stance on floor - eyes open, − eyes closed, stance on foam - eyes open, − eyes closed (sway [mm])

n.a., 73.2%

4

Marques et al. 2011 [16]

randomized, two-armed controlled trial

N = 60 (0/60);

69.9 ± 5.8 years;

n = 11

EG: multicomponent training (n = 30); CG: no treatment (n = 30)

32 weeks; 2 sessions/week; 60 min/session

warm-up (stretching); strength (marching in place, heel-drops, stepping, squats, hip flexors, extensors, abductors, knee flexors and extensors upper body exercises; with weight vests, stepper, elastic bands, dumbbells); endurance; balance (walking on a straight line, walking heel to toe; ropes, sticks, balls, balloons); agility (challenging hand-eye coordination, foot-eye coordination, dynamic balance, standing and leaning balance, reaction time through ball games, relay races, dance movements and obstacle courses); stretching

Strength: 1 × 8–15 repetitions up to 3 × 8–15 repetitions

Strength: isokinetic knee extension, knee flexion, − left, − right, −  180°/s, −  60°/s (peak torque [Nm/kg]), isometric handgrip strength (force [N]); mobility: 30s chair stand (repetitions [number]), 8-ft up-and-go (time [s]); balance: 1-legged stance (time [s]); endurance: 6 min walking (distance [m])

n = 0; 72% (excluding drop-outs)

5

Morat & Mechling 2015 [15]

randomized, four-armed controlled trial

n = 78 (43/35);

68.4 ± 6.2 years;

n = 26

EG1: multicomponent training (n = 20); EG2: resistance and balance training (n = 19); EG3: coordination training (n = 20); CG: no treatment (n = 19)

24 weeks; 2 sessions/week; 60 min/session

warm-up; strength (leg press, chest press, back extension, crunches, hip abduction and adduction; with strength training machines, gymnastic mats); balance (bipedal stance, single leg stance with soft pads, teeterboard); agility (stair climbing, uneven surfaces, avoiding obstacles, walking; with obstacles, stairs); cool-down

2 × 10–12 repetitions at 60–75% 1RM; 1 min rest between sets; 2 × 6–8 repetitions with 40–50% 1RM; 2 min rest between sets; intensity gradually increased by RPE

Strength: isometric leg press, chest press (force [N]), 1RM dynamic leg press, chest press (strength [kg]); mobility: MSOT, − maximal (time [s]), 5-times STS (time [s]), TUG (time [s]), maximum step length (distance [cm])

n = 0; IG1: 85%, IG2: 77%, IG3: 78%

6

de Resende Neto et al. 2020 [34]

randomized, two-armed controlled trial

n = 32 (0/32);

n.a. ± n.a. years;

n = 7

FT: multicomponent training (n = 16); TT: resistance and endurance training (n = 16)

12 weeks; 3 sessions/week; 55 min/session

Warm-up (main joint mobility, deadlifts, squats, jumps); agility/speed/coordination (up and down the step, rope training linear, medicine ball throws, displacement between cones, agility ladder, jumping jacks); strength/power (deadlift, rowing, sit and stand up, shoulder adduction, farmers walk, rowing, glute bridge, front plank; with suspension trainer, bench, kettlebells, elastic bands, medicine ball); endurance (high intensity interval running)

Agility/speed/coordination: 2 laps during circuit training; 1 min per exercise; 6–7/10 RPE; strength: 2 × 8–12 repetitions in 1 min; 7–9/10 RPE

Strength: 30s arm curl (repetitions [number]), maximal isometric dorsal strength ([kg]); mobility: 30s chair stand (repetitions [number]), rise and walk (time [s]); endurance: 6 min walking (distance [m])

n.a.; FT: 95%, TT: 85% (excluding drop-outs)

6

da Silva et al. 2019 [43]

randomized, two-armed controlled trial

n = 79 (n.a./n.a.); 68.8 ± 7.1 years; n = 35

Neuromotor: multicomponent (n = 40); aerobic: walking (n = 39)

12 weeks; 3 sessions/week; 50 min/session

Warm-up (stretching, mobilization, muscle activation, light calisthenic exercises); strength (light exercises with leggings, medicine ball, elastic resistance); balance and functional activities (functional gait training: circuit of obstacles; stationary march; ball throwing and kicking; standing up and sitting); muscle relaxation and breathing

Stretching: 30 s per segment; strength: 4 × 8 repetitions; 12–16 points on the Borg Scale of Perceived Exertion

Cognition: memory tests of perception (score), nomination (score), incidental memory (score), short-term memory (score), long-term memory (score), recognition (score)

n.a.; > 75% for all participants

4

Sohng et al. 2003 [44]

randomized, two-armed controlled trial

n = 52 (n.a./n.a.);

75.7 ± n.a. years;

n = 7

EG: multicomponent training (n = 26); CG: no treatment (n = 26)

8 weeks; 2 sessions/week; 40 + min/session

stretching; strength (seated); endurance; balance; coordination; breathing, relaxation; health education

Increased session duration from 40 min until final week

Strength: isometric knee extension, knee flexion, ankle extension, ankle flexion, − left, − right (strength [kg])

n.a.; n.a.

6

Vaughan et al. 2014 [17]

randomized, two-armed controlled trial

n = 49 (0/49);

68.9 ± 3.4 years;

n = 1

EG: multicomponent training (n = 25); CG: no treatment (n = 24)

16 weeks; 2 sessions/week; 60 min/session

endurance (choreographed movements in a random order to music, marching, side steps, arm movement, directional changes); strength (squats, arm and leg curls, elastic bands rows, weighted bag drags, ball bouncing, flies, push-ups; with chairs, kettlebells, balls, elastic bands, mats); balance (1-legged stance, heel-toe walking, stand on foam, step on foam); coordination/agility/reaction (weaving in and out of chairs, flat foot heel drumming, walking ball bounces, moving foot sequences, fast foot tapping, wall ball throws, catch dropping objects); stretching (back extension, cat and camel stretches, hamstring stretches, spinal rotation); cool-down

Endurance: 124–126 bpm (music) with 3–4/10 RPE to 126–128 bpm with 5–6/10 RPE; increasing number of simultaneous movements; strength: 2 × 6–8 repetitions with light weights to 5–6/10 RPE and 2x40sec; increasing weights as able; balance: 2x30sec to 2x40sec; increasing challenges to concentration; induced perturbation; reduced base of support; flexibility: 3–4/10 RPE; reaction: 2x30sec to 2x40sec; coordination/agility/reaction: smaller balls; faster movements

Mobility: TUG (time [s]); balance: 1-legged stance (n.a.); cognition: COAST (time [s]), COWAT (score), LNS (score), trail making test A/B (time [s]), Deary-Liewald reaction time task - simple reaction, − choice reaction (time [ms]); endurance: 6 min walking (distance [m])

n.a.; 94%

8

Wolf et al. 2020 [36]

randomized, two-armed controlled trial

n = 41 (0/30); n.a. ± n.a. years; n = 11

MG: multicomponent training (n = 12); SG: strength training (n = 18)

12 weeks, 3 sessions/week; 60 min/session

Warm-up; gait (rapid changes in movement direction); strength (lower limb exercises using body weight and/or elastic bands; balance (static and dynamic exercises); endurance (walking); stretching

Gait: progression was based on the complexity of task; strength: 3 × 12 repetitions with 50s rest, intensity based on progressively changing resistance of elastic bands; balance: progression based on augmenting the instability of the supporting surface; endurance: 12–14/20 RPE

Strength: maximal voluntary isometric contraction of hip, knee and ankle extensors and flexors (peak torque [Nm], rate of torque development [Nm/s]); balance: voluntary step execution test (time [s]); endurance: 6 min walking (distance [m]); mobility: 8-ft up-and-go (time [s]), 30s chair stand (repetitions [number]); gait: 8 m walking (speed [m/s])

n.a.; n.a.

5