Table 1 Characteristics of included studies
Author, year, reference, title | Type of review | No. relevant studies / total no. studies | No. relevant participant / total no. participants, age and cognitive status of participants | Physical activity / exercise description | Control group activity | Outcome cognitive domain | Main results of the Healthy persons without cognitive impairment |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Angevaren et al., 2008 [7]* Physical activity and enhanced fitness to improve cognitive function in older people without known cognitive impairment | MA of RCTs | 11/11 | MD/612 > 55 years, without MCI | Aerobic exercise Exercise programs of any intensity, duration, frequency, and length | Any intervention, No intervention, Flexibility, Balance, Resistance, Social activities Mental activities | Attention, Executive function, Memory, Processing speed | Aerobic exercise had a large effect on cognitive function, especially motor function, and a moderate effect on auditory attention Small effects were found on cognitive speed and visual attention |
Bhattacharyya et al., 2021 [9]* Effects of yoga-related mind–body therapies on cognitive function in older adults: a systematic review with meta-analysis | MA of RCTs NRCTs | 6/12 | 673/912 > 55 years, with and without MCI | Mind body exercise Duration 60 min, Frequency1-4/week, Length 2–6 months | Health education, Memory enhancement training, Stretching, Resistance, Music listening | Executive function, Memory, Processing speed | Mind–body exercises (Kundalini and Hatha yoga and yogic meditation) had a small positive effect on executive function, memory, and attention and processing speed |
Chen et al., 2020 [10]* Effects of exercise training interventions on executive function in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis | MA of RCTs | 13/24 | 1989/7023 > 55 years with or without MCI | Aerobic exercise Resistance exercise Mind body exercise Intensity 3–9 METs, Duration 45–60 min, Frequency 2—7/week, Length 1- 6 months | No activity, Stretching, Social activity, Flexibility | Executive function | Exercise training was associated with a small improvement in executive function, especially inhibition, especially updating and shifting |
Clifford et al., 2022 [45]* The effect of dance on physical health and cognition in community dwelling older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis | MA of RCTs | 5/22 | 400/1090 > 60 years without MCI | Aerobic exercise Freq 1–3/week Length 6 weeks to 18 months | No activity Other exercise | Global cognition, Memory | The effect of dance on cognition was not significantly different compared to other exercise interventions |
Coelho-Junior et al., 2022 [8]* Resistance training improves cognitive function in older adults with different cognitive status: a systematic review and meta-analysis | MA of RCTs | 11/18 | 383/MD ≥ 60 years Healthy participants with or without MCI | Resistance exercise Intensity low–high, Frequency 1–3/week, Length 6–36 weeks | No intervention, Stretching, Balance, Social activities | Attention, Global cognitive function, Memory, | Resistance training had a moderate effect in improving overall global cognitive function and a small effect on short term memory. No improvement was seen regarding concentration and attention |
Falck et al., 2019 [40]* Impact of exercise training on physical and cognitive function among older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis | MA of RCTs | 32/48 | 3523/6281 ≥ 60 years without MCI | Aerobic Resistance Mixed Exercise Frequency ≥ 1/week, Length ≥ 2 months | MD | Executive function, Global cognitive function, Memory, Processing speed | Exercise training had a small positive effect on cognitive function |
Gasquoine and Chen, 2022 [41]* Effect of physical exercise on popular measures of executive function in older, nonclinical, participants of randomized controlled trials: a meta-analytic review | MA of RCTs | 50/50 | MD > 60 years Nonclinical participants | Aerobic Resistance Mixed Duration 1.5–3 h, Length 12–104 weeks | Placebo, Waitlist, No exercise, Stretching, Health lectures, Educational lectures, Balance | Executive function, Memory, Processing speed | Exercise training had only a small positive effect on executive functions (digit symbol). Memory tests were all not significantly different from zero |
Hindin and Zelinski, 2012 [46] Extended practice and aerobic exercise interventions benefit untrained cognitive outcomes in older adults: a meta-analysis | MA of NRCTs | 17/42 | 1016/3781 > 55 years without MCI | Aerobic exercise Duration 3–79 min, Length 2–52 weeks | Extended practice of cognitive tasks | Choice reaction time, Executive function, Memory | Aerobic fitness training produced a small improvement in executive function, choice reaction time and memory |
Jiang, et al. 2022 [47]* Effects of exergaming on executive function of older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis | MA of RCTs | 11/15 | 489/650 > 60 Without MCI | Aerobic exercise Freq 1–3/week Length single session (one study)-26 weeks | No activity Bike Balance/stretching Education material Aerobic Cognitive training Exercise without VR | Executive function | Participants who were subjected to an exergaming intervention had better overall EF than control subjects |
Loprinzi et al., 2019 [48]* The temporal effects of acute exercise on episodic memory function: systematic review with meta-analysis | MA of SR | 2/25 | 68/2085 middle-age 45–60 years and older adults > 60 years | Aerobic exercise Intensity low – vigorous, Duration 2–35 min | MD | Memory | Acute aerobic exercise before memory encoding and during early consolidation had a negative effect on episodic memory |
Ma et al., 2023 [13]* The effect of rhythmic movement on physical and cognitive functions among cognitively healthy older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis | MA of RCTs | 10/44 | 1358/2752 ≥ 60 years without MCI | Aerobic exercise Freq 1–3/ week Length 8 weeks—4 years | No activity, health education, walking, wait-listing | Global cognition, Executive function, memory, attention | An association was found between rhythmic movement and global cognitive function. No significant improvement was found in executive function |
Martins et al., 2022 [49]* The Effects of High-Speed Resistance Training on Health Outcomes in Independent Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | MA of RCTs | 4/14 | 133/408 ≥ 65 years without MCI | High-speed resistance training Freq 1–3/weeks Length 18–16 weeks | MD | Global cognition | High-speed resistance training had large effects on global cognitive function |
Roig et al., 2013 [14]* The effects of cardiovascular exercise on human memory: a review with meta-analysis | MA of RCTs NRCTs | 14/50 | 1244/2224 ≥ 60 years without MCI | Aerobic exercise Intensity low—vigorous, Duration 20–40 min, Length 1–60 months | No exercise | Memory | Acute aerobic exercise had a large effect and long-term exercise an insignificant effect on long-term memory Long-term exercise had an insignificant effect on short-term memory |
Scherder et al., 2014 [50]* Executive functions of sedentary elderly may benefit from walking: a systematic review and meta-analysis | MA of RCTs | 5/8 | 363/642 > 55 years, with or without MCI | Aerobic exercise Intensity low – moderate, Frequency 3–5/week, Duration 40–60 min, Length 1–12 months | No intervention, Flexibility, Toning, Balance, Strength | Executive function | Walking had a small positive effect on executive functions, set-shifting and inhibition, in older persons without cognitive impairment. Walking had no effect on executive function in older persons with cognitive impairment |
Wang et al., 2021 [51]* Effects of square-stepping exercise on motor and cognitive function in older adults—a systematic review and meta-analysis | MA of RCTs NRCTs | 5/10 | 308/423 ≥ 55 years without significant medical conditions | Aerobic exercise Frequency 3–7/week, Duration 30–60 min, Length 1.5–12 months | Maintained lifestyle, Outdoor supervised walking, Daily activities, Aerobic exercise Balance | Executive function, Global cognitive function | Square-stepping exercise had no effect on reaction time or executive function |
Xiong et al., 2021 [39]* Effects of physical exercise on executive function in cognitively healthy older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials: physical exercise for executive function | MA of RCTs | 25/25 | 3197/3197 ≥ 60 years without MCI | Aerobic exercise Resistance exercise Mind–body exercise Frequency ≥ 3/week, Duration 20–90 min, Length 1–12 months | Flexibility, Balance, Toning, Stretching, Daily routine, Waitlist, Social activities, Reading, Health education | Memory | Physical exercise had a medium effect in improving the executive function subdomain cognitive flexibility but no effect on working memory or inhibitory control |
Ye et al., 2021 [32]* The effect of mind–body exercise on memory in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis | MA of RCTs | 6/12 | 490/1051 ≥ 60 years with or without MCI | Mind body exercise Frequency 3–7/week, Duration 30–90 min, Length 8–48 weeks | Daily routine, Health education, Stretching, Toning, Resistance | Memory | Mind body exercise had a large effect in improving general memory and long-term memory in participants without cognitive impairment. Corresponding effects were moderate on episodic memory, semantic memory and short-term memory. A small effect was seen on working memory |
Zhao et al., 2022 [52]* Physical Activity and Cognition in Sedentary Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | MA of RCTs | 5/7 | 280/350 ≥ 60 years with or without MCI | Aerobic exercise Freq 2–4/weeks Length 8–24 weeks | No exercise | Global cognition, Memory, Executive function, Processing speed | Physical activity might have a general positive effect on the cognition of sedentary older adults |
Zhidong et al., 2021 [53]* Effects of physical exercise on working memory in older adults: a systematic and meta-analytic review | MA of RCTs | 17/28 | 1259/2063 ≥ 60 years with or without MCI | Aerobic exercise Resistance exercise Mind body exercise Mixed Exercise Freq 1–5/week Length 4–52 weeks | No activity social activities, health education, stretching exercises, cognitive training, | Memory | Physical exercise can improve the working memory of older adults. Greatest effects are seen in multi-component exercise or mind–body exercise of moderate intensity for 45–60 min 3 times a week, for more than 6 months |
Zhu et al., 2023 [54]* Effects of physical activity on visuospatial working memory in healthy individuals: A systematic review and meta-analysis | MA of RCTs | 12/21 | 867/1595 Children, adults and Seniors without MCI | Aerobic Freq 15 min –5/week Single session—18 weeks | No movement; cognitive training; daily routine; stretching; reading; passive cycling; Walk | Working memory | Physical activity had a small but significant positive impact on VSWM in healthy individuals |